Abstract Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis is an autoimmune encephalitis that was reported in recent years. At present, there remains no unified treatment regimen for the children and adolescents with this disease around the world. Immunotherapy is still the preferred way of treatment, mainly including first-line immunotherapy, second-line immunotherapy, and long-term immunotherapy. In recent years, some researchers have tried new immunosuppressants or modified immunotherapy regimens to improve the treatment outcome of the patients. This article summarizes related immunotherapy regimens, as well as the future direction of research on immunotherapy for anti-NMDAR encephalitis.
Dalmau J, Tüzün E, Wu HY, et al. Paraneoplastic anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis associated with ovarian teratoma[J]. Ann Neurol, 2007, 61(1):25-36.
[2]
Guan HZ, Ren HT, Cui LY. Autoimmune encephalitis:an expanding frontier of neuroimmunology[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2016, 129(9):1122-1127.
[3]
Gable MS, Sheriff H, Dalmau J, et al. The frequency of autoimmune N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis surpasses that of individual viral etiologies in young individuals enrolled in the California Encephalitis Project[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2012, 54(7):899-904.
[4]
McKeon A. The importance of early and sustained treatment of a common autoimmune encephalitis[J]. Lancet Neurol, 2013, 12(2):123-125.
[5]
Titulaer MJ, McCracken L, Gabilondo I, et al. Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis:an observational cohort study[J]. Lancet Neurol, 2013, 12(2):157-165.
[6]
Byrne S, McCoy B, Lynch B, et al. Does early treatment improve outcomes in N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis?[J]. Dev Med Child Neurol, 2014, 56(8):794-796.
[7]
Leypoldt F, Gelderblom M, Schöttle D, et al. Recovery from severe frontotemporal dysfunction at 3 years after N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antibody encephalitis[J]. J Clin Neurosci, 2013, 20(4):611-613.
Zekeridou A, Karantoni E, Viaccoz A, et al. Treatment and outcome of children and adolescents with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis[J]. J Neurol, 2015, 262(8):1859-1866.
Nagappa M, Bindu PS, Mahadevan A, et al. Clinical features, therapeutic response, and follow-up in pediatric anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis:experience from a tertiary care university hospital in India[J]. Neuropediatrics, 2016, 47(1):24-32.
Turkdoğan D, Orengul AC, Zaimoğlu S, et al. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (Anti-NMDA) receptor encephalitis:rapid and sustained clinical improvement with steroid therapy starting in the late phase[J]. J Child Neurol, 2014, 29(5):684-687.
[14]
Zivadinov R. Steroids and brain atrophy in multiple sclerosis[J]. J Neurol Sci, 2005, 233(1-2):73-81.
[15]
Appenzeller S, Bonilha L, Rio PA, et al. Longitudinal analysis of gray and white matter loss in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus[J]. Neuroimage, 2007, 34(2):694-701.
Schwartz J, Winters JL, Padmanabhan A, et al. Guidelines on the use of therapeutic apheresis in clinical practice-evidence-based approach from the Writing Committee of the American Society for Apheresis:the sixth special issue[J]. J Clin Apher, 2013, 28(3):145-284.
[18]
DeSena AD, Noland DK, Matevosyan K, et al. Intravenous methylprednisolone versus therapeutic plasma exchange for treatment of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis:a retrospective review[J]. J Clin Apher, 2015, 30(4):212-216.
Kreye J, Wenke NK, Chayka M, et al. Human cerebrospinal fluid monoclonal N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor autoantibodies are sufficient for encephalitis pathogenesis[J]. Brain, 2016, 139(Pt 10):2641-2652.
[21]
Dale RC, Pillai S, Brilot F. Cerebrospinal fluid CD19(+) B-cell expansion in N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis[J]. Dev Med Child Neurol, 2013, 55(2):191-193.
[22]
Harjunpää A, Wiklund T, Collan J, et al. Complement activation in circulation and central nervous system after rituximab (anti-CD20) treatment of B-cell lymphoma[J]. Leuk Lymphoma, 2001, 42(4):731-738.
Wong-Kisiel LC, Ji T, Renaud DL, et al. Response to immunotherapy in a 20-month-old boy with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis[J]. Neurology, 2010, 74(19):1550-1551.
[25]
Dale RC, Brilot F, Duffy LV, et al. Utility and safety of rituximab in pediatric autoimmune and inflammatory CNS disease[J]. Neurology, 2014, 83(2):142-150.
[26]
Kavcic M, Fisher BT, Seif AE, et al. Leveraging administrative data to monitor rituximab use in 2875 patients at 42 freestanding children's hospitals across the United States[J]. J Pediatr, 2013, 162(6):1252-1258, 1258.e1.
Clowse ME, Behera MA, Anders CK, et al. Ovarian preservation by GnRH agonists during chemotherapy:a meta-analysis[J]. J Womens Health (Larchmt), 2009, 18(3):311-319.
[31]
Byrne S, Jordan I, Redmond J. Prevalence and treatment of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis[J]. Lancet Neurol, 2013, 12(5):424.
[32]
Bravo-Oro A, Abud-Mendoza C, Quezada-Corona A, et al. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis:experience with six pediatric patients. Potential efficacy of methotrexate[J]. Rev Neurol, 2013, 57(9):405-410.
[33]
Tatencloux S, Chretien P, Rogemond V, et al. Intrathecal treatment of anti-N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis in children[J]. Dev Med Child Neurol, 2015, 57(1):95-99.
[34]
Hacohen Y, Wright S, Waters P, et al. Paediatric autoimmune encephalopathies:clinical features, laboratory investigations and outcomes in patients with or without antibodies to known central nervous system autoantigens[J]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2013, 84(7):748-755.
[35]
Wang H. Efficacies of treatments for anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis[J]. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed), 2016, 21:651-663.
Gresa-Arribas N, Titulaer MJ, Torrents A, et al. Antibody titres at diagnosis and during follow-up of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis:a retrospective study[J]. Lancet Neurol, 2014, 13(2):167-177.
[38]
Schein F, Gagneux-Brunon A, Antoine JC, et al. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis after Herpes simplex virus-associated encephalitis:an emerging disease with diagnosis and therapeutic challenges[J]. Infection, 2017, 45(4):545-549.
